Evidence suggests a positive relationship between physical activity, exercise, and mental health. Exercise as a treatment modality is now being considered alongside psychotherapeutic and pharmacological approaches, and the role of specifically trained exercise specialists and personal trainers is an important component of the multi-disciplinary team.

The physiological response to breath holding includes bradycardia and peripheral vasoconstriction, which contrasts with that of exercise which includes tachycardia and peripheral vasodilation. This raises the question as to what the physiological response is to breath holding during exercise. During low-intensity exercise, the breath holding response of bradycardia and peripheral vasoconstriction prevails over the exercise response of tachycardia and peripheral vasodilation, but nevertheless the exercise may be sustained. Due to the lack of availability of extrinsic oxygen (O 2 ) from the atmosphere during breath holding, the energy demands can be met by increased reliance on intrinsic O 2 stores (i.e., O 2 that was in the body before the breath hold) via increased O 2 extraction at the muscle compared with exercise while breathing, or increased contributions from anaerobic energy systems. During high intensity exercise of short duration, the exercise response may prevail over the breath holding response due to the increased parasympathetic withdrawal and sympathetic drive of higher intensity exercise. If breath holding during high-intensity exercise was sustained for long enough, the breath holding response may eventually overcome the exercise response, although this may be difficult due to the inverse relationship between exercise intensity and breath hold duration.

The purpose of this article is to give an overview and theoretical framework on the concept of periodized nutrition—with an emphasis on adequate carbohydrate intake to enhance performance.

With almost one million people in the United States living with multiple sclerosis, this article aims to provide personal trainers with ideas for exercises to meet the needs of these individuals.

The purpose of this article is to discuss the various types of low-impact activities and their associated cardiovascular and musculoskeletal benefits.

This PTQ article reviews scientific literature on concurrent training and examines whether combining aerobic and resistance exercise has meaningful impacts on performance. Visit the NSCA online to read more about personal training.

This article from Personal Training Quarterly reviews tart cherry supplementation and its role in strength training. Visit NSCA online to read more on athletic performance and sport nutrition.

Lifestyle modification, including exercise, is important for both preventing and treating hypertension. More recent guidelines for treating hypertension have increased emphasis on lifestyle factors, such as exercise. As fitness professionals, it is important to educate and encourage clients with hypertension on the importance of exercise in their overall health.

This excerpt from NSCA’s Guide to Sport and Exercise Nutrition discusses the research surrounding the timing of hydration and its impact on sport performance for those participating in aerobic endurance exercise.